In the field of international relations (IR), many assumptions underpin the understanding of the global order. A prevalent assumption holds that the world has long operated under a hegemonic system, primarily led by the United States. This perspective posits that global politics is dominated by a few, or even a single, hegemonic great power state. However, this view is not uncontested. Some scholars challenge the fundamental assumptions underlying the worldview, arguing that non-hegemonic actors are not merely passive recipients of universal ideas or collective goods. Instead, these scholars assert that non-hegemonic states are active participants with agency of their own right, which borrow from and export their own ideas and policies, thereby shaping the international system in meaningful ways. This perspective highlights the agency of smaller states and underscores the dynamic and multifaceted nature of global politics.
The differing responses to the war in Ukraine and the Israel-Hamas war have caused significant contentions within the European Union, prompting criticisms from the Middle East regarding hypocrisy and double standards in the treatment of invading powers. The EU is interrelated with the Middle East through a complex web of political, economic, and security ties, driven by shared interests in regional stability, energy resources, and managing migration flows. This relationship is further influenced by historical connections, trade partnerships, and collaborative efforts to address conflicts and humanitarian issues.
One of the countries the EU collaborates with extensively is Egypt. The relations between Egypt and the EU have been institutionalized in several agreements, starting with the 2004 Association Agreement, and progressing with multiple partnership frameworks, in addition to Egypt being part of the European Neighborhood Policy. In March 2024, both parties agreed to elevate the relationship into a strategic and comprehensive partnership, which was sealed with a €7.4 billion loan and support package.
Egypt’s economic landscape is heavily influenced by its dependency on loans from international financial institutions (IFIs) such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. However, these loans have proved counterproductive since they have created an overreliance upon loans as a governmental revenue stream, leaving the Egyptian economy vulnerable and contributing to inflation rates. This supports a broader hypothesis that current neoliberal policies promoted by developed countries and IFIs are detrimental to the economic development of developing countries. These policies, which include free trade, laissez-faire industrial policies, and the liberalization of international trade and investment, are presented as "good policies" for fostering economic growth.
However, Chang critiques this approach by highlighting the role of protectionist measures like tariffs and subsidies in the historical path to development for more economically advanced countries like the UK or the USA. He concludes that neoliberal policies have led to a collapse in growth in developing countries over the last two decades and calls for a rethink of trade policy and development strategy. He recommends that global rules be rewritten to allow developing countries to use tariffs and subsidies more actively for infant industry promotion, in line with their development strategies. Chang also advocates for a change in the policy conditions attached to financial assistance from international financial institutions to recognize that there is no universal "best practice" policy for all countries.
Enter the BRICS, an intergovernmental organization consisting of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, that has in a similar vein been trying to affect a change to the global political order, where these "good policies" are imposed on nations of the Global South, thereby maintaining the dominance of countries in the Global North. They critique the voting mechanisms in global economic organizations and aim to shift the balance to let the voices of developing countries have more weight. As of January 2024, Egypt has officially joined this partnership of "rising economies" that have long surpassed the G7 share of global GDP.
Examining how Egypt navigates its dependency on foreign loans while projecting an image of stability that attracts billion-dollar packages and huge strategic economic partnerships offers a nuanced understanding of its foreign and diplomatic strategies. This level of financial commitment by global powers indicates a strategic investment in Egypt’s perceived stability and strategic importance. During personal discussions with Egyptian diplomats and scholars on the topic of EU-Egypt relations, a recurring theme surfaces: Egypt's deliberate framing of itself as a bastion of stability amidst the tumultuous currents of the region. As the EU grapples with internal discord and conflicting interests at the same time as Russia and China are aiming to change the existing balance of the world order, Egypt positions itself as a pivotal regional player in the dynamics of the Middle East. This paper embarks on an analysis of Egypt's strategic framing as a stable force in the Middle East through the lens of framing theory in international relations. By examining the discourse and policies of both Egypt and its international counterparts, particularly the EU and the BRICS nations, this study seeks to unravel the implications of Egypt's stability narrative on regional dynamics and global power relations, contributing to the literature on the agency of non-hegemonic states in the global order.
Following this introductory chapter, the second chapter will present the theory of framing, outlining its implications in international relations. The third chapter will dive into the concept of stability, while the subsequent chapters will delve into the nuances of Egypt's stability framing, analyzing its portrayal by the Egyptian government, its degree of correspondence with reality, and its reflection in the policies and statements of the European Union. The seventh chapter will analyze the declining normative power of the EU before the paper shifts to an analysis of Egypt’s entry into the BRICS. Finally, the paper concludes it is crucial to illuminate the agency of non-hegemonic states like Egypt in shaping the contours of international relations and reshaping the geopolitical order, challenging prevailing narratives. This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of understanding how strategic narratives are constructed and the profound impact they have on global geopolitics.
